American Revolution and Northern Southern Settlements in America ( Essay

American Revolution and Northern Southern Settlements in America ( 1600s-1700s - Essay Example Finally in 1765, the Stamp Act was passed, that required all printed materials in the colonies to have a revenue stamp on them, which would provide money to â€Å"secure, protect, and defend† the colonies. Though these laws were eventually repealed and replaced with the Townshend Acts in 1767, which placed taxes on goods that were imported to the colonies, the damage was done to relations between Britain and the colonies. Things continued to get worse for both sides. On December 16, 1773, men dressed as Mohawk Indians entered Boston Harbor and dumped all of the tea cargo on three ships. This was done in response to Britain allowing the East India Tea Company to not only gain a monopoly on tea, but also to bypass colonial wholesalers (Hamby 58). To retaliate and show their authority over the colonies, Britain passed the Coercive, or Intolerable Acts, which, among other things, closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for, along with rendering most local decision-making bodie s ineffective and requiring the governor to approve town meetings before they could be held. When the colonies did not quietly accept the taxes, more and more British troops were sent to the colonies.

Give me 3 to 4 topics than i will choose one of them and let you Research Proposal

Give me 3 to 4 topics than i will choose one of them and let you know.topic of human resorce manangment i am doing phd so need a researcg - Research Proposal Example Managers of performance appraisal, variable pay, and merit plans stress on the fact that these programs must be in form or should be constant with organizations employee practices, strategic missions or goals, and culture whether they are doing the work as organization aims. Earlier in 1982, few federal plans like those funded under the Job Training Partnership Act, were needed to build up contracts which exercised clients results measures as well as serve incentives and authorized accordingly (Yates, 1997). The Government Performance and Results Act 1993 and also the Service Efforts and Accomplishments (SEA) reporting idea of Government Accounting Standards Board (GASB, 1994) underlined the significance of performance responsibility. In late 1994, 26 federal groups signed charitable promises to convert near about 100 service agreements to performance based contracts. By 1997, federal acquisition requirements were rewritten with specific language about the requirement for performance necessities and quality benchmarks in both agreements requirements and also quality assurance. These laws and plans discussed the significance of measuring agreement performance on delivery of already agreed services as well as the feedbacks of services on users. In this project, the quasi experimental study can be used for understanding the research problem. Likert scale can be a very useful tool for completing this project. The sample size for this project can be selected as 100 people. A questionnaire will be prepared on the given topic for collecting the response of the respondents which will be answered by respondents individually. The findings will be analysed by statistical method. After completing the questionnaire section the responses of the respondents are analysed in the findings segment. The result will provide an insight into the organizational view point regarding

How the pen is Important Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How the pen is Important - Research Paper Example It acts as a filter, blocking the processing of extraneous information. Writing letters with a pen or pencil on paper, we concentrate better and make the brain to pay attention to what we write. Virginia Berninger, a psychologist from the University of Washington, explains the differences between the handwriting and the keyboard, so that with handwriting a person commits more movements, because each letter has its own set of elements, and work on the computer is monotone, you need only to press a key (Berninger 72). Many famous writers preferred to write novels and plays by hand, even when their colleagues have chosen the keyboard. In 2009 psychologists of the University of Washington have found that students who wrote essays by hand, got the text which was richer and more diversified, they used more sophisticated phrases and coped with the tasks faster than their peers, who were typing on a computer (â€Å"Learning Disabilities Research & Practice†). Working at a computer overloads our sensory system. Staring of the screen, cursor movement, the temptation availability of any information in a single click – here are the factors which dull our creativity. On the contrary, when you have just a piece of paper and a pen in front of you, the brain does not receive any additional stimulation and focuses its resources on a specific task. Many professors believe that computers serve as distractions, detracting from class discussion and student learning (Yamamoto 56). Habit to record the experiences and thoughts on paper can reduce their severity. (Pennebaker 43) Natalie Rogers, an author of expressive psychotherapy techniques, considered diaries as an important way of self-expression and the awakening of creative energy. The more often we write by hand – the more frequently we express our individuality, is Rogers`s opinion. It is expressed in the shape and size of letters, handwriting fluency, and location of the text on the page. In the process of writing we

Critical Response on the story The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe Essay - 1

Critical Response on the story The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe - Essay Example â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† depicts the extent to which a human being can go and the narrative serves to explain the reader that the narrator is not as mentally sound as he argues that he is. It also presents the complexity of the feelings of the narrator where he is unsure of his own feelings for the old man. The story begins with the explanation of the narrator that he is a perfectly well being but he deeply wishes to kill the old man that he lives with because of the fact that he has a pale blue eye. At the same time he also admits the fact that it is just the eye that is driving him angry and has made him desire to kill this man despite of the fact that the old man has never wronged him. He clearly explains that he has no desire for the old man’s money and nor is there any other motive behind the killing apart from the old man’s eye. He also claims the fact that he loves the old man and hence this serves to provide an explanation that the narrator is in a very complex state of mind and cannot identify his own feelings and perceptions about the world. His strong dislike for the eye can be seen when he says, â€Å"I made up my mind to take the life of the old man, and thus rid myself of the eye forever.† These lines explain the fact that the human soul does not matt er to him and just for the fact that he hates the old man’s eye, he wants to kill him. The narrator plans to carry out the murder and he designs a plot and strategy for that. He explains the fact that since he planned the murder so well, he cannot be called insane as no insane person would be so intelligent. Though he claims that he is mentally well, but his acts in the story clearly present the reality that he is not well. He is obsessed with killing the old man and he has a desire to kill him while he is awake so that before his killing he can see his eye which is the main motive behind the murder. He waits complete seven days only for the fact that the old man opens his eye so that

Business arena Essay Example for Free

Business arena Essay Recent years have demonstrated that a lack of unity exists within the business arena compared to the synergistic methods in which trade unions execute their policies. This must be considered another of the drawbacks of the existence of interest groups. This has resulted in costly political campaigning for Australian businesses (Bell, 0000). The number of organisations that attempt to represent their interests at the political level has become such a complex and tangled web that it is often unprofitable for to do business in such a scene (Matthews). Such action often bring great expense and yet offer little real guarantee of success (Coutskorais, 0000, p. 80). Such organisations in Australia as the Minerals Council of Australia (which represents the particular industry) and Surfer’s Paradise Chamber of Commerce (which represents regional membership) exist for the profitable purpose of (among other things) promoting competition among businesses and the consequent improvement of policies (Matthews, 0000, 75) Despite the clear benefits that interest groups can provide, some drawbacks do exist when one considers their impact on the politics of a country. It is usually necessary to be careful that certain interest groups do not become too powerful and end up coercing government to adversely affect policy changes (Apollonio Bero, 2007). The two Australian interest groups previously mentioned are cases in point, as they represent very powerful organizations that have at least a large potential to urge the implementation of any of the policies they devise. Care must be taken that the policies they advocate really do consider the interest of the public. One major reason why such care must be taken is the fact that these interest groups are never guaranteed to possess equity in their actions. Because they take a particular stand on an issue, their interest is likely to exclude the interest of several others who have opposing views. Furthermore, interest groups have the general privilege of making donations to political parties. This is a lobbying technique that has been around for decades, but may give a political edge to such groups that have the greatest means of funding such campaigns (2007). Some interest groups have outsider status, and this means that they attempt to influence policy by altering public opinion (Evans, year. p. 84). Such groups may prove both beneficial and detrimental to the politics of a country. The detriment comes where such groups falsify or misrepresent information to the public in order to convince them (and their political candidates) to act in the behalf of the group. One group which has historically been seen in this light is the tobacco industry-front group. According to researchers Appollonio Bero, â€Å"The tobacco industry has a history of misrepresenting scientific evidence† (2007, p.419). The researchers go on to point out that the industry has created what seems to be an unaffiliated interest group which presents â€Å"its antiregulation agenda as an expression of popular will, and allowed industry lobbyists access to policymakers who were otherwise unwilling to work with them† (2007, p. 419). This presents a very unfavourable view of political interest groups. However, positive effects of this attempt to influence the public may occur in the form of debates between/among opposing groups, through which the public becomes more informed about the policies being advocated by each. Furthermore, since each group represents a social movement made up of people who share values and see eye to eye on certain matters of concern, these groups provide a forum or network of communication that has the potential to provide a series of checks and balances amongst themselves and within the government (Marsh, 2000). Overall, the action groups that exist within Australia to lobby for the interests of the people have a predominantly positive impact on the Australian society. Such organizations as the Boy’s Club, Gay rights, and animal liberation groups offer protection and a voice for these minorities in the decision-making sectors of the government. Such groups also speak for such issues as gun control, military disarmament, and the protection of the environment. These interest groups possess the expertise and the experience to speak persuasively in the behalf of their interests, and also have the ability to aid in the execution of policies once they have been adopted by the political bodies. The media has the positive effect of promoting the accountability of the government, and of other businesses that my have formed ties with members of the government. However, the highly structured and powerful nature of certain interest groups, while they have the power to get things done within the government, also have the power to wrongly influence the government on their behalf. It is therefore necessary to take care in the freedom with which such groups are allowed to act. References van Acker, E. Curran, G. (eds. ) 2004, Governing Business and Globalisation, (2nd edn. ) Pearson, Frenchs Forest. Ang, J C. Boyer. 2007, â€Å"Finance and politics: the wealth effects of special interest group influence during the nationalisation and privatisation of Conrail. † Cambridge Journal of Economics. vol. 31, no. 2, pp 193-216. Apollonio, D. E. L. A. Bero. 2007, â€Å"Finance and politics: the wealth effects of special interest group influence during the nationalisation and privatisation of Conrail. † American Journal of Public Health. vol. 97, no 3, pp 419-428. BCA. (2007). â€Å"Our Structure. † Business Council of Australia. Melbourne, VIC. Retrieved on May 8, 2007 from http://www. bca. com. au/Content. aspx? ContentID=100827 Hague, R. M. Harrop, S. Breslin. 1994, Political Science: A Comparative Introduction. St. Martin Press, New York. Gray, V. D. Lowery. 2000, Population Ecology of Interest Representation : Lobbying Communities in the American States. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Greenemeier, L J. N. Hoover. 2007, â€Å"Advocacy, Inc. † InformationWeek. no. 1121, pp 38-46. Hollander, R. â€Å"Name of Chapter or Essay. † (2006). Eccleston, R, Williams, P. Hollander, R. (Eds. ). Foundations of Australian Politics. Pearson Education, Sydney. Marsh, I. 2000, â€Å"Gaps in Policy-making capacities; interest groups, social movements, think tanks and the media. † in M. Keating, J. Wanna P. Weller (eds. ) Institutions on the Edge: Capacity for Governance. Allen Unwin, St Leonard’s. Parkin, A, Summers, J. Woodward, D. (eds. ) 2006, Government, Politics, Power and Policy in Australia, (8th ed. ) Pearson, French’s Forest. Chapter 17. Singleton, G et al. 2006, Interest Groups’ in Australian Political Institutions. 8th edn. Pearson, French’s Forest.. Ward, I. R. G. Stewart. 2006, Ch. 12, ‘Pressure Groups and Social Movements’ in Politics One, 3rd edn. , Palgrave. Macmillan, South Yarra. Weitzel, P. 2004, â€Å"Joining with non-media organization can help win access battle. † The Quill. vol. 92, no 7, pp 20-21.

Intercultural Communication and Conflicts Essay Example for Free

Intercultural Communication and Conflicts Essay The communication between different cultures is very difficult. Intercultural communication can lead to misunderstanding and confusion. You may offend someone without even knowing it. Nonverbal communication is challenge as well such as handshakes, eye contact, hug, and etc. These problems happened so many times from my fiancee who is from America and me who is from South Korea. One day, my father visited to our place for holiday. When my father walked into our place, my fiancee was lying on the sofa and then he said â€Å"Hi. In Korean culture, when adults come to you, you need to stand up and bow to them. That moment, my fiancee’s behavior was disrespectful to my father. This tells us that we grew up differently since we have different culture background. However, we both have the attitude where we like to learn about each other cultures. It gives us a better understanding and respect more. To me, language barrier is one of issue with communication. When I moved to America, I barely spoke English and I was really afraid of speaking with other people, especially in English; however, time went by, as went to high school, college and join in the Army in America, I became more interactive in communication with people. Also, my fiancee helps me to learn and correct my English skill. Interpersonal communication Thousands of people use more online email, texting, Facebook, twitter, and etc. to communicate now, because it’s easier and faster to communicate to others. On the other hand, online communications can be bad. More likely, face to face communication can be avoided. I realized that most people use smart phone anytime and anywhere now. Sadly, it happens during class, meeting, dating, waiting, and dining. In fact, one of my nieces who is 6 years old refused to talk and listen to me when I discipline her. Instead face to face communication, she wanted to text me to say â€Å"sorry. † I didn’t accept her apologize because I believe in true meaningful interpersonal communication should be face to face communication.

Therapeutic Recreation Models

Therapeutic Recreation Models Therapeutic Recreation seeks to promote the capacity and ability of groups and individuals to make self determined and responsible choices, in light of their needs to grow, to explore new perspectives and possibilities, and to realise their full potential. Within this assignment I am going to critically compare and evaluate the use of the following models in the Therapeutic Recreation Service: The Leisure Ability Model and the Health Promotion/ Health Protection Model. In doing so I will firstly describe the two models in detail and then critically compare and evaluate them both and their use in the therapeutic recreation service. The Leisure Ability Model: Every human being needs, wants, and deserves leisure. Leisure presents opportunities to experience mastery, learn new skills, meet new people, deepen existing relationships, and develop a clearer sense of self. Leisure provides the context in which people can learn, interact, express individualism, and self-actualize (Kelly, 1990). A large number of individuals are constrained from full and satisfying leisure experiences. It then follows that many individuals with disabilities and/or illnesses may experience more frequent, severe, or lasting barriers compared with their non-disabled counterparts, simply due to the presence of disability and/or illness. The Leisure Ability Models underlying basis stems from the concepts of: (a) learned helplessness vs. mastery or self-determination; (b) intrinsic motivation, internal locus of control, and causal attribution; (c) choice; and (d) flow. Learned Helplessness: Learned helplessness is the perception by an individual that events happening in his or her life are beyond his or her personal control, and therefore, the individual stops trying to effect changes or outcomes with his or her life (Seligman, 1975). They will eventually stop wanting to participate in activity or participate in any other way. They will learn that the rules are outside of their control and someone else is in charge of setting the rules. Their ability to take a risk will be diminished and they will learn to be helpless. Learned helplessness may present a psychological barrier to full leisure participation and it may, conversely, be unlearned with the provision of well-designed services. Intrinsic Motivation, Internal Locus of Control, and Causal Attribution: All individuals are intrinsically motivated toward behaviour in which they can experience competence and self-determination. As such, individuals seek experiences of incongruity or challenges in which they can master the situation, reduce the incongruity, and show competence. This process is continual and through skill acquisition and mastery, produces feelings of satisfaction, competence, and control. An internal locus of control implies that the individual has the orientation that he or she is responsible for the behaviour and outcomes he or she produces (Deci, 1975). Typically individuals with an internal locus of control take responsibility for their decisions and the consequences of their decisions, while an individual with an external locus of control will place responsibility, credit, and blame on other individuals. An internal locus of control is important for the individual to feel self-directed or responsible, be motivated to continue to seek challenges, and develop a sense of self-competence. http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gif Attribution implies that an individual believes that he or she can affect a particular outcome (Deci, 1975; Seligman, 1975). An important aspect of the sense of accomplishment, competence, and control is the individuals interpretation of personal contribution to the outcome. Without a sense of personal causation, the likelihood of the individual developing learned helplessness increases greatly. Choice: The Leisure Ability Model also relies heavily on the concept of choice, choice implies that the individual has sufficient skills, knowledge, and attitudes to be able to have options from which to choose, and the skills and desires to make appropriate choices. Lee and Mobily (1988) stated that therapeutic recreation services should build skills and provide participants with options for participation. Flow: When skill level is high and activity challenge is low, the individual is quite likely to be bored. When the skill level is low and the activity challenge is high, the individual is most likely to be anxious. When the skill level and activity challenge are identical or nearly identical, the individual is most able to achieve a state of concentration and energy expenditure that Csikszentmihalyi (1990) has labeled flow. Treatment Services During treatment services, the client generally has less control over the intent of the programs and is dependent on the professional judgment and guidance provided by the specialist. The client experiences less freedom of choice during treatment services than any other category of therapeutic recreation service. The role of the specialist providing treatment services is that of therapist. Within treatment services, the client has minimal control and the therapist has maximum control. The specialist typically designates the clients level and type of involvement, with considerably little input from the client. In order to successfully produce client outcomes, the specialist must be able to assess accurately the clients functional deficits; create, design, and implement specific interventions to improve these deficits; and evaluate the client outcomes achieved from treatment programs. http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gifThe ultimate outcome of treatment services is to eliminate, significantly improve, or teach the client to adapt to existing functional limitations that hamper efforts to engage fully in leisure pursuits. Often these functional deficits are to the degree that the client has difficulty learning, developing his or her full potential, interacting with others, or being independent. The aim of treatment services is to reduce these barriers so further learning and involvement by the client can take place. Leisure Education: Leisure education services focus on the client acquiring leisure-related attitudes, knowledge, and skills. Participating successfully in leisure requires a diverse range of skills and abilities, and many clients of therapeutic recreation services do not possess these, have not been able to use them in their leisure time, or need to re-learn them incorporating the effects of their illness and/ or disability. Leisure education services are provided to meet a wide range of client needs related to engaging in a variety of leisure activities and experiences. (Howe, 1989, p. 207). The overall outcome sought through leisure education services is a client who has enough knowledge and skills that an informed and independent choice can be made for his or her future leisure participation. Leisure education means increased freedom of choice, increased locus of control, increased intrinsic motivation, and increased independence for the client. Recreation Participation: http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gif Recreation participation programs are structured activities that allow the client to practice newly acquired skills, and/or experience enjoyment and self-expression. These programs are provided to allow the client greater freedom of choice within an organized delivery system and may, in fact, be part of the individuals leisure lifestyle. The clients role in recreation participation programs includes greater decision making and increased self-regulated behaviour. The client has increased freedom of choice and his or her motivation is largely intrinsic. In these programs, the specialist is generally no longer teaching or in charge per se. The client becomes largely responsible for his or her own experience and outcome, with the specialist moving to an organizer and/or supervisor role. As Stumbo and Peterson (1998) noted, recreation participation allows the client an opportunity to practice new skills, experience enjoyment, and achieve self-expression. From a clinical perspective, recreation participation does much more. For instance, recreation opportunities provide clients with respite from other, more arduous, therapy services. Leisure education programs may focus on: (a) self-awareness in relation to clients new status; (b) learning social skills such as assertiveness, coping, and friendship making; (c) re-learning or adapting pre-morbid leisure skills; and (d) locating leisure resources appropriate to new interests and that are accessible. Recreation participation programs may involve practicing a variety of new leisure and social skills in a safe, structured environment. In designing and implementing these programs, the specialist builds on opportunities for the individual to exercise control, mastery, intrinsic motivation, and choice. The ultimate outcome would be for each client to be able to adapt to and cope with individual disability to the extent that he or she will experience a satisfying and independent leisure lifestyle, and be able to master skills to achieve flow. Health Promotion/ Health Protection Model: The Health Protection/Health Promotion Model (Austin, 1996, 1997) stipulates that the purpose of therapeutic recreation is to assist persons to recover following threats to health, by helping them to restore themselves or regain stability. (health protection), and secondly, optimising their potentials in order that they may enjoy as high a quality of health as possible (health promotion). Within this model (Austin, 1997, p. 144) states that â€Å"the mission of therapeutic recreation is to use activity, recreation, and leisure to help people to deal with problems that serve as barriers to health and to assist them to grow toward their highest levels of health and wellness The health promotion, health protection model is broken up into four broad concepts which are the humanistic perspective, high level wellness, stabilisation and actualisation and health. Humanistic Perspective: Those who embrace the humanistic perspective believe that each of us has the responsibility for his or her own health and the capacity for making self-directed and wise choices regarding our health. Since individuals are responsible for their own health, it is critical to empower individuals to become involved in decision-making to the fullest extent possible (Austin, 1997). High-Level Wellness: High-level wellness deals with helping persons to achieve as high a level of wellness as they are capable of achieving (Austin, 1997). Therapeutic Recreation professionals have concern for the full range of the illness-wellness continuum (Austin, 1997). http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gif Stabilization and Actualization Tendencies: The stabilizing tendency is concerned with maintaining the steady state of the individual. It is an adaptation mechanism that helps us keep stress in a manageable range. It protects us from biophysical and psychosocial harm. The stabilizing tendency is the motivational force behind health protection that focuses on efforts to move away from or avoid negatively valence states of illness and injury (Pender, 1996, p. 34). The actualization tendency drives us toward health promotion that focuses on efforts to approach or move toward a positively valence state of high-level health and well-being (Pender, 1996, p. 34). Health: King (1971) and Pender (1996) health encompasses both coping adaptively and growing and becoming. Healthy people can cope with lifes stressors. Those who enjoy optimal health have the opportunity to pursue the highest levels of personal growth and development. Under the Health Protection/Health Promotion Model, therapists* recognize that to help clients strive toward health promotion is the ultimate goal of therapeutic recreation. Further, therapists prize the right of each individual to pursue his or her highest state of well-being, or optimal health. TR practice is therefore based on a philosophy that encourages clients to attempt to achieve maximum health, rather than just recover from illness (Austin, 1997). The Component of Prescriptive Activities: When clients initially encounter illnesses or disorders, often they become self-absorbed. They have a tendency to withdraw from their usual life activities and to experience a loss of control over their lives (Flynn, 1980). Research (e.g., Langer Rodin, 1976; Seligman Maier, 1967) has shown that feelings of lack of control may bring about a sense of helplessness that can ultimately produce severe depression. At times such as this clients are encountering a significant threat to their health and are not prepared to enjoy and benefit from recreation or leisure. For these individuals, activity is a necessary prerequisite to health restoration. Activity is a means for them to begin to gain control over their situation and to overcome feelings of helplessness and depression that regularly accompany loss of control. At this point on the continuum, Therapeutic Recreation professionals provide direction and structure for prescribed activities. Once engaged in activity, clients can begin to perceive themselves as being able to successfully interact with their environments, to start to experience feelings of success and mastery, and to take steps toward regaining a sense of control. Clients come to realise that they are not passive victims but can take action to restore their health. They are then ready to partake in the recreation component of treatment. The Recreation Component: Recreation is activities that take place during leisure time (Kraus. 1971). Client need to take part in intrinsically motivated recreation experiences that produce a sense of mastery and accomplishment within a supportive and nonthreatening atmosphere. Clients have fun as they learn new skills, new behaviors, new ways to interact with others, new philosophies and values, and new cognition about themselves. In short, they learn that they can be successful in their interactions with the world. Through recreation they are able to re-create themselves, thus combating threats to health and restoring stability. http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gif The Leisure Component: Whereas recreation allows people to restore themselves, leisure is growth promoting. Leisure is a means to self-actualisation because it allows people to have self-determined opportunities to expand themselves by successfully using their abilities to meet challenges. Feelings of accomplishment, confidence and pleasure result from such growth producing experiences. Thus leisure assumes an important role in assisting people to reach their potentials (Iso-Ahola, 1989). Core elements in leisure seem to be that it is freely chosen and intrinsically motivated. The Recreation and Leisure Components: Although recreation and leisure differ in that recreation is an adaptive device that allows us to restore ourselves and leisure is a phenomenon that allows growth, they share commonalities. Both recreation and leisure are free from constraint. Both involve intrinsic motivation and both provide an opportunity for people to experience a tremendous amount of control in their lives. Both permit us to suspend everyday rules and conventions in order to be ourselves and let our hair down. Both allow us to be human with all of our imperfections and frailties. It is the task of the therapeutic recreation professional to maintain an open, supportive, and nonthreatening atmosphere that encourages these positive attributes of recreation and leisure and which help to bring about therapeutic benefit (Austin, 1996). http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gif According to Bandura (1986), bolstered efficacy expectations allow clients to have confidence in themselves and in their abilities to succeed in the face of frustration. Thus, clients feel more and more able to be in control of their lives and to meet adversity as they move along the continuum toward higher levels of health. It is the role of the TR professional to help each client assume increasing levels of independence as he or she moves along the illness-wellness continuum. Of course, the client with the greatest dependence on the therapist will be the individual who is in the poorest health. At this point the stabilizing tendency is paramount while the client attempts to ward off the threat to health and to return to his or her usual stable state. At this time the therapist engages the client in prescriptive activities or recreation experiences in order to assist the client with health protection. During prescriptive activities the clients control is the smallest and the therapi sts is the largest. During recreation there is more of a mutual participation by the client and therapist. With the help of the therapist, the client learns to select, and participate in, recreation experiences that promote health improvement. Approximately midway across the continuum, the stabilising tendency reduces and the actualising tendency begins to arise. Leisure begins to emerge as the paramount paradigm. As the actualisation tendency increases, the client becomes less and less dependent on the therapist and more and more responsible for self-determination. The role of the therapist continues to diminish until the client is able to function without the helper. At this point the client can function relatively independently of the TR professional and there is no need for TR service delivery (Austin, 1997). Comparison of the use of the Leisure Ability Model to the Health Promotion/ Health Protection Model in Therapeutic Recreation Services: The role of the therapeutic recreation specialist, in order to reverse the consequences of learned helplessness, is to assist the individual in: (a) increasing the sense of personal causation and internal control, (b) increasing intrinsic motivation, (c) increasing the sense of personal choice and alternatives, and (d) achieving the state of optimal experience or flow. In theory, then, therapeutic recreation is provided to affect the total leisure behaviour (leisure lifestyle) of individuals with disabilities and/or illnesses through decreasing learned helplessness, and increasing personal control, intrinsic motivation, and personal choice. This outcome is accomplished through the specific provision of treatment, leisure education, and recreation participation services which teach specific skills, knowledges, and abilities, and take into consideration the matching of client skill and activity challenge. Another strength is the Models flexibility. One level of flexibility is with the three components of service. Each component of service is selected and programmed based on client need. That is, some clients will need treatment and leisure education services, without recreation participation. Other clients will need only leisure education and recreation participation services. Clearly, services are selected based on client need. In addition, programs conceptualized within each service component are selected based on client need. flexibility allow the specialist to custom design programs to fit the needs of every and any client group served by therapeutic recreation. The ultimate goal of leisure lifestyle remains the same for every client, but since it is based on the individual, how the lifestyle will be implemented by the individual and what it contains may differ. As such, the content of the Leisure Ability Model is not specific to any one population or client group, nor is it confined to any specific service or delivery setting. Some authors, including Kinney and Shank (1989), have reported this as a strength of the Model. According to the model, intervention may occur in a wide range of settings and addresses individuals with physical, mental, social, or emotional limitations (Peterson Gunn, p. 4). The intervention model is conceptually divided into three phases along a continuum of client functioning and restrictiveness. The three phases of therapeutic recreation intervention are arranged in a sequence, from greater therapist control to lesser therapist control, and from lesser client independence to greater client independence. This arrangement is purposeful and is meant to convey that the ultimate aim of the appropriate leisure lifestyle is that it be engaged in independently and freely. Summary The Health Protection/Health Promotion Model contains three major components (i.e., prescribed activities, recreation, and leisure) that range along an illness-wellness continuum. According to their needs, clients may enter anywhere along the continuum. The model emphasizes the active role of the client who becomes less and less reliant on the TR professional as he or she moves toward higher levels of health. Initially, direction and structure are provided through prescriptive activities to help activate the client. During recreation, the client and therapist join together in a mutual effort to restore normal functioning. During leisure, the client assumes primary responsibility for his or her own health and well-being. Evaluation of both models and there use in therapeutic recreation services: The overall intended outcome of therapeutic recreation services, as defined by the Leisure Ability Model, is a satisfying, independent, and freely chosen leisure lifestyle. In order to facilitate these perceptions, therapeutic recreation specialists must be able to design, implement, and evaluate a variety of activities that increase the persons individual competence and sense of control. In relation to leisure behaviour, Peterson (1989) felt that this includes improving functional abilities, improving leisure-related attitudes, skills, knowledge, and abilities, and voluntarily engaging in self-directed leisure behaviour. Thus, the three service areas of treatment, leisure education, and recreation participation are designed to teach specific skills to improve personal competence and a sense of accomplishment. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) summed up the importance of these perceptions: In the long run optimal experiences add up to a sense of mastery-or perhaps better, a sense of participation in determining the content of life-that comes as close to what is usually meant by happiness as anything else we can conceivably imagine (p. 4). The therapeutic recreation specialist must be able to adequately assess clients skill level (through client assessment) and activity requirements (through activity analysis) in order for the two to approximate one another. Given Decis (1975) theory of intrinsic motivation which includes the concept of incongruity, therapeutic recreation specialists may provide activities slightly above the skill level of clients in order to increase the sense of mastery. When this match between the activity requirements and client skill levels occurs, clients are most able to learn and experience a higher quality leisure. To facilitate this, therapeutic recreation specialists become responsible for comprehending and incorporating the: (a) theoretical bases (including but not limited to internal locus of control, intrinsic motivation, personal causation, freedom of choice, and flow); (b) typical client characteristics, including needs and deficits; (c) aspects of quality therapeutic recreation program delivery process (e.g., client assessment, activity analysis, outcome evaluation, etc.); and (d) therapeutic recreation content (treatment, leisure education, and recreation participation). These areas of understanding are important for the therapeutic recreation specialist to be able to design a series of coherent, organized programs that meet client needs and move the client further toward an independent and satisfactory leisure lifestyle. Again, the success of that lifestyle is dependent on the client gaining a sense of control and choice over leisure options, and having an orientation toward intrinsic motivation, an internal locus of control, and a personal sense of causality. The Leisure Ability Model provides specific content that can be addressed with clients in order to facilitate their development, maintenance, and expression of a successful leisure lifestyle. Each aspect of this content applies to the future success, independence, and well-being of clients in regard to their leisure. http://dw.com.com/redir?tag=rbxira.2.a.10destUrl=http://www.cnet.com/b.gif The client has reduced major functional limitations that prohibit or significantly limit leisure involvement (or at least has learned ways to overcome these barriers); understands and values the importance of leisure in the totality of life experiences; has adequate social skills for involvement with others; is able to choose between several leisure activity options on a daily basis, and make decisions for leisure participation; is able to locate and use leisure resources as necessary; and has increased perceptions of choice, motivation, freedom, responsibility, causality, and independence with regard to his or her leisure. These outcomes are targeted through the identification of client needs, the provision of programs to meet those needs, and the evaluation of outcomes during and after program delivery. A therapeutic recreation specialist designs, implements, and evaluates services aimed at these outcomes Austin (1989) objected to the Leisure Ability Model on the basis that is supporting a leisure behaviour orientation, instead of the therapy orientation. A number of authors have objected to the Leisure Ability Model, having observed that its all-encompassing approach is too broad and lacks the focus needed to direct a profession (Austin, p. 147). Austin advocated an alignment of therapeutic recreation with allied health and medical science disciplines, rather than leisure and recreation professionals The Model in Practice The Health Protection/Health Promotion Model may be applied in any setting (i.e., clinical or community) in which the goal of therapeutic recreation is holistic health and well-being. Thus, anyone who wishes to improve his or her level of health can become a TR client. TR professionals view all clients as having abilities and intact strengths, as well as possessing intrinsic worth and the potential for change. Through purposeful intervention using the TR process (i.e., assessment, planning, implementation, evaluation), therapeutic outcomes emphasize enhanced client functioning. Typical therapeutic outcomes include increasing personal awareness, improving social skills, enhancing leisure abilities, decreasing stress, improving physical functioning, and developing feelings of positive self-regard, self-efficacy and perceived control (Austin, 1996).